VIIᵉ siècle – VIIIᵉ siècle
North Africa west of Egypt, especially Cyrenaica and Tripolitania
Traduction non disponible · Original (anglais) · français indisponible
The Arab conquest of North Africa was a sequence of campaigns that extended Muslim rule westward from Egypt across Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Ifriqiya, and parts of the Maghrib. Beginning with the annexation of Cyrenaica and Tripoli, the conquest involved victories over Byzantine forces, alliances and wars with Berber leaders, the foundation of Kairouan, the defeat of Kusayla and al-Kahina, and the destruction of Carthage. By 702, Arab authorities had organized Ifriqiya as a province and established Tunis as its principal port.
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Le récit
After the conquest of Egypt, Amr ibn al-As sought to secure its western frontier by annexing Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, regions that had belonged administratively to Egypt since the Byzantine reorganization under Maurice. In 643, Cyrenaica was seized with little resistance from Byzantine forces; the principal opposition came from Berber groups identified as the Luwata and Hawwara, who surrendered and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 13,000 dinars. A garrison was also established at Zawila, an important watering place on the route toward Fezzan.
The following year, Arab forces captured Tripoli after a brief siege. Separate columns attacked Sabratha and the oasis of Waddan, whose occupation effectively brought the Nafusa mountain region within the sphere of conquest. These operations secured the western frontier of Egypt and gave the Arabs a base from which to advance toward Byzantine Africa, known in the passage as Byzacena and corresponding approximately to modern Tunisia.
In 647, Abd Allah ibn Sad attacked Byzacena and defeated the Byzantine exarch Gregory near Subaytula, identified with Sbeitla. Gregory was killed, Subaytula was occupied, and Arab raiding columns spread across the country. The campaign ended in 649 after the African population offered a substantial ransom in exchange for the withdrawal of Abd Allah ibn Sad, although permanent Arab garrisons remained at Barka and Waddan.
Following a period of civil war within the Arab empire, Muawiya resumed the conquest in the 660s. Arab forces defeated the Byzantine commander Nicephorus, captured Sousse, Cululis, Bizerta, and Djerba, and raided Sicily. In 670, Uqba ibn Nafi took command, advanced through Fezzan and Kawar, and founded Kairouan as a military base and political centre. The new province was called Africa, or Ifriqiya, and covered approximately the territory of present-day Tunisia.
The conquest then entered a more contested phase. Abu al-Muhajir won the allegiance of Kusayla, chief of the Awraba and an influential Berber leader, in 678. After Uqba ibn Nafi was restored to command, however, he disregarded Abu al-Muhajir's advice and invaded Kusayla's homeland. Uqba's long expedition reached the Atlantic coast, but during the return journey Kusayla allied with Christian forces and defeated him near Tahudha in 683. Kusayla subsequently seized Kairouan and governed Ifriqiya as a Berber ruler while retaining the Islamic faith.
Arab authority was restored gradually. Zuhayr ibn Qays defeated and killed Kusayla at the battle of Mamma in 690, but was himself killed soon afterward when Byzantine forces occupied Barka. Hassan ibn al-Numan later destroyed the Byzantine port installations at Carthage and captured the remaining Byzantine colonies and fortresses along the coast, including Bizerta, Hippo Regius, and Tabarka.
Hassan then confronted al-Kahina, a Djarawa leader in the Aures mountains who had rallied Zanata groups against the Arab advance. She defeated Hassan near Wadi Miskiana in 696, but her scorched-earth policy alienated sedentary communities and encouraged them to seek Arab assistance. In 701, Hassan defeated and killed her; the Aures Berbers received amnesty in return for military service, and 12,000 men, including al-Kahina's two sons, entered the Arab armies and adopted Islam.
In 702, Hassan ordered the destruction of Carthage to prevent a Byzantine return. He then established a new port on the site of an older Phoenician harbour south-west of Carthage. A canal and shipyard were constructed, giving rise to Tunis. The province of Africa was organized to include Tripolitania, Ifriqiya proper, and the Mzab region, creating an administrative framework for continued Muslim expansion across the Maghrib.
VIIᵉ siècle – VIIIᵉ siècle
North Africa west of Egypt, especially Cyrenaica and Tripolitania
Traduction non disponible · Original (anglais) · français indisponible
The Arab conquest of North Africa was a sequence of campaigns that extended Muslim rule westward from Egypt across Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Ifriqiya, and parts of the Maghrib. Beginning with the annexation of Cyrenaica and Tripoli, the conquest involved victories over Byzantine forces, alliances and wars with Berber leaders, the foundation of Kairouan, the defeat of Kusayla and al-Kahina, and the destruction of Carthage. By 702, Arab authorities had organized Ifriqiya as a province and established Tunis as its principal port.
Poursuivre l’exploration
Le récit
After the conquest of Egypt, Amr ibn al-As sought to secure its western frontier by annexing Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, regions that had belonged administratively to Egypt since the Byzantine reorganization under Maurice. In 643, Cyrenaica was seized with little resistance from Byzantine forces; the principal opposition came from Berber groups identified as the Luwata and Hawwara, who surrendered and agreed to pay an annual tribute of 13,000 dinars. A garrison was also established at Zawila, an important watering place on the route toward Fezzan.
The following year, Arab forces captured Tripoli after a brief siege. Separate columns attacked Sabratha and the oasis of Waddan, whose occupation effectively brought the Nafusa mountain region within the sphere of conquest. These operations secured the western frontier of Egypt and gave the Arabs a base from which to advance toward Byzantine Africa, known in the passage as Byzacena and corresponding approximately to modern Tunisia.
In 647, Abd Allah ibn Sad attacked Byzacena and defeated the Byzantine exarch Gregory near Subaytula, identified with Sbeitla. Gregory was killed, Subaytula was occupied, and Arab raiding columns spread across the country. The campaign ended in 649 after the African population offered a substantial ransom in exchange for the withdrawal of Abd Allah ibn Sad, although permanent Arab garrisons remained at Barka and Waddan.
Following a period of civil war within the Arab empire, Muawiya resumed the conquest in the 660s. Arab forces defeated the Byzantine commander Nicephorus, captured Sousse, Cululis, Bizerta, and Djerba, and raided Sicily. In 670, Uqba ibn Nafi took command, advanced through Fezzan and Kawar, and founded Kairouan as a military base and political centre. The new province was called Africa, or Ifriqiya, and covered approximately the territory of present-day Tunisia.
The conquest then entered a more contested phase. Abu al-Muhajir won the allegiance of Kusayla, chief of the Awraba and an influential Berber leader, in 678. After Uqba ibn Nafi was restored to command, however, he disregarded Abu al-Muhajir's advice and invaded Kusayla's homeland. Uqba's long expedition reached the Atlantic coast, but during the return journey Kusayla allied with Christian forces and defeated him near Tahudha in 683. Kusayla subsequently seized Kairouan and governed Ifriqiya as a Berber ruler while retaining the Islamic faith.
Arab authority was restored gradually. Zuhayr ibn Qays defeated and killed Kusayla at the battle of Mamma in 690, but was himself killed soon afterward when Byzantine forces occupied Barka. Hassan ibn al-Numan later destroyed the Byzantine port installations at Carthage and captured the remaining Byzantine colonies and fortresses along the coast, including Bizerta, Hippo Regius, and Tabarka.
Hassan then confronted al-Kahina, a Djarawa leader in the Aures mountains who had rallied Zanata groups against the Arab advance. She defeated Hassan near Wadi Miskiana in 696, but her scorched-earth policy alienated sedentary communities and encouraged them to seek Arab assistance. In 701, Hassan defeated and killed her; the Aures Berbers received amnesty in return for military service, and 12,000 men, including al-Kahina's two sons, entered the Arab armies and adopted Islam.
In 702, Hassan ordered the destruction of Carthage to prevent a Byzantine return. He then established a new port on the site of an older Phoenician harbour south-west of Carthage. A canal and shipyard were constructed, giving rise to Tunis. The province of Africa was organized to include Tripolitania, Ifriqiya proper, and the Mzab region, creating an administrative framework for continued Muslim expansion across the Maghrib.
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