Ethiopia’s Christian kingdom survived repeated pressure from Muslim states to the east, but succession disputes and raids weakened the authority of its emperors. In the sixteenth century, Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of Adal led a powerful jihad into Ethiopian territory. His armies burned churches, seized prisoners and booty, and placed much of the Christian kingdom under Muslim rule before Ethiopian and Portuguese forces defeated them in 1543.

The Oromo migrations transformed the political and cultural geography of Ethiopia from the mid-sixteenth century onward. Pastoral Oromo groups moved into southern and southeastern Ethiopia in successive waves, seeking land and pasture rather than imposing a unified empire or religion. Their expansion weakened both Christian and Muslim powers, while some Oromo communities adopted Christianity, assimilated into Amhara or Tigray society, or established political roles and kingdoms of their own.

During the Gonder period, Ethiopia’s rulers attempted to preserve central authority while nobles exercised increasing independence. Fasiladas ruled from 1632 to 1667 and established Gonder as a permanent capital and cultural center, where churches such as Debre Birthan Selassie were built. By the early nineteenth century, the monarchy had become largely ceremonial, and powerful nobles competed for military titles and control of the provinces.

Tewodros II and Menelik II later pursued different but related projects of reunification and state-building. Tewodros attempted to create a professional army, reform administration, and reduce the power of local lords, but died by suicide during the British expedition of 1868. Menelik, who became emperor in 1889, doubled the size of his domain, founded Addis Ababa as the capital, negotiated with European powers, and promoted modernization while confronting Italian expansion.