The Kingdom of Madagascar entered the final decades of the nineteenth century with an ambitious political project: the Merina monarchy sought to extend its authority across the island and consolidate a unified state. Its rulers attempted to preserve independence by balancing relations with France, Britain, the United States, and Germany. This diplomacy became increasingly difficult as French colonial expansion gained momentum and Madagascar was portrayed in France as a market, a source of wealth, and a territory vulnerable to British influence.

The royal government combined diplomacy with internal reform. In 1877, it freed Masombika slaves brought from the African mainland and arranged their settlement on allocated lands. It reorganized the legal system in 1878 and promulgated the Code of 305 Articles in 1881, covering civil law, criminal law, and legal procedure. These measures reflected Rainilaiarivony’s effort to present Madagascar as a modern state capable of dealing with European powers on an equal diplomatic footing.

French pressure nevertheless intensified through disputes over land ownership, the Toalé incident, missionary influence, and competing claims to authority over Sakalava territories. The first Franco-Merina war began after the French navy bombarded Majunga in May 1883. The treaty of 17 December 1885 allowed France to represent Madagascar in foreign relations, maintain a resident-general at Antananarivo, obtain long-term leases, occupy Diego Suarez, and receive an indemnity, while still recognizing Ranavalona as sovereign and sole owner of land. Its ambiguity enabled France to interpret the agreement as a protectorate treaty while the Malagasy government continued to defend the kingdom’s independence.

The kingdom’s diplomatic difficulties were compounded by economic pressure. A loan from the Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris was guaranteed by customs receipts from six ports, while French-appointed agents supervised tax collection. European mining and forestry concessions produced limited benefits for the royal government and contributed to insecurity, forced labour, worker flight, and the growth of irregular groups known as fahavalo. Rising taxation and compulsory labour deepened popular resentment, while attacks reached Ambohimanga in 1888 and the capital in 1890.

Religious transformation also unsettled the political order. The conversion of Ranavalona II and the rise of the Palace Church weakened the role of traditional sampy shrines and their guardians, displaced established hierarchies, and fostered a Christianized elite. Opposition came from traditional authorities, dissident Christians, Catholic converts, and groups seeking greater religious autonomy. In 1893, dissidents in Ambatonakanga created the Tranozozoro church, demonstrating that religious tensions had reached the centre of the capital.