Cᵉ siècle av. J.-C.
Africa
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The Middle Palaeolithic, termed the Middle Stone Age south of the Sahara, represents a broad prehistoric technological stage between earlier and later Stone Age traditions. In Africa it is associated especially with Levallois and disc-core flaking, retouched flakes, points, scrapers, and regional tool-making traditions. Its earliest appearances may approach 200,000 years ago, while characteristic industries had generally ceased by about 35,000 BP, although evolved forms persisted locally for another 10,000–15,000 years. The chapter emphasizes technological continuity, regional variation, incomplete dating, and changing relationships between archaeological assemblages and human populations.
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The Middle Palaeolithic in North Africa and the Middle Stone Age south of the Sahara occupy the archaeological position between the Lower or Earlier Stone Age and the Upper or Later Stone Age. The labels are useful shorthand, but their precise meaning remains debated because archaeologists have defined them through different combinations of chronology, artifacts, technology, socioeconomic organization, and human physical remains. In Africa, the terms are most securely understood as broad levels of cultural evolution rather than rigid chronological units.
Across the continent, these traditions shared specialized methods for producing flakes and blades, especially Levallois and disc-core techniques. The resulting pieces were commonly retouched into side-scrapers, points, denticulates, cutting edges, and other light-duty tools, while some earlier heavy-duty forms continued in use. Similar technological principles appeared alongside substantial regional differences in tool preferences, raw materials, and economic activities.
The archaeological record does not support a simple equation between every industrial tradition and a distinct biological population. Mousterian assemblages were associated both with Neanderthals and with modern humans, while changes in tool composition may reflect innovation, altered activities, environmental conditions, or resource availability rather than population replacement. Low population density and geographical separation probably encouraged independent regional developments within a shared technological framework.
The first appearance of Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age technological patterning is placed more than 100,000 years ago during the Last Interglacial, or Eemian, when Africa experienced increased rainfall, warmer conditions, and higher sea levels. The chapter also allows that Middle Stone Age technology may have begun nearly 200,000 years ago. Evidence from northern Africa and southern Africa indicates that the earliest stages were broadly contemporary with Middle Palaeolithic developments in Eurasia.
The latest essentially Acheulian assemblages are generally dated between about 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. Despite inadequate dating, the Acheulian Industrial Complex appears to have been largely replaced by specialized Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age flake industries by approximately 100,000 years ago. The transition was not necessarily abrupt in lived technological practice, since earlier hand-axes and choppers could remain in use while later forms began to appear.
Chronological precision remains limited. Only a small number of African assemblages are both well stratified and securely dated, and apparent technological breaks may represent processes lasting one or two thousand years. In southern Africa, characteristic Middle Stone Age industries had generally ceased to be made by about 35,000 BP, although more evolved complex forms persisted for another 10,000 to 15,000 years at some localities.
Levallois and disc-core methods were designed to reduce the waste of raw material, an important advantage when stone had to be transported from quarry sites to occupation camps. In the Levallois method, carefully prepared cores controlled the shape of the flakes removed from their surfaces. Ellipsoid, sub-triangular, and sub-rectangular cores could produce predetermined flakes, points, or blades that were subsequently retouched into scraping, sawing, cutting, and pointed tools.
Disc-core technology reduced waste through radial flaking on alternating faces of a core. The resulting flakes were often short and triangular, sometimes resembling Levallois products, and were retouched into side-scrapers and points. In Ethiopia and Malawi, some cores that began as Levallois cores were reduced further into disc cores, a sequence occasionally demonstrated by refitting flakes on workshop floors.
Regional adaptations included Nubian cores in Nubia and Ethiopia, para-Levallois cores with side platforms in Nubia, single- and double-ended blade cores in the Orange River basin, and finely radially flaked sub-triangular cores in the Tshangulan Industry and final Lupemban. These variants illustrate how shared technical knowledge could generate distinct local traditions under differing raw-material conditions and patterns of resource exploitation.
During the Eemian Interglacial, Mediterranean vegetation expanded across parts of the Maghrib, including areas of southern Tunisia that are now close to the desert-steppe boundary. Pollen evidence from El-Guettar and Oued el-Akarit indicates Mediterranean-type vegetation associated with Middle Palaeolithic levels. Later, after the onset of the last Würm Glaciation, cooler conditions lowered vegetation belts, expanded grassland, and encouraged dune formation along the coast and in the northern Sahara.
The Sahara was also less arid during the Eemian and Würm periods than it is today. Lakes and swamps formed in depressions, while dry Mediterranean vegetation occupied higher massifs such as the Ahaggar and Tibesti. These water-rich environments could support Middle Palaeolithic groups, although severe aridity beginning around 20,000 years ago made broad areas of the desert and adjacent Sahel less suitable for occupation.
The Maghrib and Sahara are commonly divided into Mousterian and Aterian complexes, although individual sites do not always permit a secure distinction. The Maghrib Mousterian relied on Levallois and disc-core techniques and contained numerous side-scrapers, together with Mousterian points, denticulates, end-scrapers, truncated pieces, naturally backed pieces, and rare burins. The Aterian may derive from the Maghrib Mousterian, but the two complexes may also have overlapped and reflected differences in activities rather than separate populations.
Cᵉ siècle av. J.-C.
Africa
Traduction non disponible · Original (anglais) · français indisponible
The Middle Palaeolithic, termed the Middle Stone Age south of the Sahara, represents a broad prehistoric technological stage between earlier and later Stone Age traditions. In Africa it is associated especially with Levallois and disc-core flaking, retouched flakes, points, scrapers, and regional tool-making traditions. Its earliest appearances may approach 200,000 years ago, while characteristic industries had generally ceased by about 35,000 BP, although evolved forms persisted locally for another 10,000–15,000 years. The chapter emphasizes technological continuity, regional variation, incomplete dating, and changing relationships between archaeological assemblages and human populations.
Poursuivre l’exploration
Le récit
The Middle Palaeolithic in North Africa and the Middle Stone Age south of the Sahara occupy the archaeological position between the Lower or Earlier Stone Age and the Upper or Later Stone Age. The labels are useful shorthand, but their precise meaning remains debated because archaeologists have defined them through different combinations of chronology, artifacts, technology, socioeconomic organization, and human physical remains. In Africa, the terms are most securely understood as broad levels of cultural evolution rather than rigid chronological units.
Across the continent, these traditions shared specialized methods for producing flakes and blades, especially Levallois and disc-core techniques. The resulting pieces were commonly retouched into side-scrapers, points, denticulates, cutting edges, and other light-duty tools, while some earlier heavy-duty forms continued in use. Similar technological principles appeared alongside substantial regional differences in tool preferences, raw materials, and economic activities.
The archaeological record does not support a simple equation between every industrial tradition and a distinct biological population. Mousterian assemblages were associated both with Neanderthals and with modern humans, while changes in tool composition may reflect innovation, altered activities, environmental conditions, or resource availability rather than population replacement. Low population density and geographical separation probably encouraged independent regional developments within a shared technological framework.
The first appearance of Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age technological patterning is placed more than 100,000 years ago during the Last Interglacial, or Eemian, when Africa experienced increased rainfall, warmer conditions, and higher sea levels. The chapter also allows that Middle Stone Age technology may have begun nearly 200,000 years ago. Evidence from northern Africa and southern Africa indicates that the earliest stages were broadly contemporary with Middle Palaeolithic developments in Eurasia.
The latest essentially Acheulian assemblages are generally dated between about 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. Despite inadequate dating, the Acheulian Industrial Complex appears to have been largely replaced by specialized Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age flake industries by approximately 100,000 years ago. The transition was not necessarily abrupt in lived technological practice, since earlier hand-axes and choppers could remain in use while later forms began to appear.
Chronological precision remains limited. Only a small number of African assemblages are both well stratified and securely dated, and apparent technological breaks may represent processes lasting one or two thousand years. In southern Africa, characteristic Middle Stone Age industries had generally ceased to be made by about 35,000 BP, although more evolved complex forms persisted for another 10,000 to 15,000 years at some localities.
Levallois and disc-core methods were designed to reduce the waste of raw material, an important advantage when stone had to be transported from quarry sites to occupation camps. In the Levallois method, carefully prepared cores controlled the shape of the flakes removed from their surfaces. Ellipsoid, sub-triangular, and sub-rectangular cores could produce predetermined flakes, points, or blades that were subsequently retouched into scraping, sawing, cutting, and pointed tools.
Disc-core technology reduced waste through radial flaking on alternating faces of a core. The resulting flakes were often short and triangular, sometimes resembling Levallois products, and were retouched into side-scrapers and points. In Ethiopia and Malawi, some cores that began as Levallois cores were reduced further into disc cores, a sequence occasionally demonstrated by refitting flakes on workshop floors.
Regional adaptations included Nubian cores in Nubia and Ethiopia, para-Levallois cores with side platforms in Nubia, single- and double-ended blade cores in the Orange River basin, and finely radially flaked sub-triangular cores in the Tshangulan Industry and final Lupemban. These variants illustrate how shared technical knowledge could generate distinct local traditions under differing raw-material conditions and patterns of resource exploitation.
During the Eemian Interglacial, Mediterranean vegetation expanded across parts of the Maghrib, including areas of southern Tunisia that are now close to the desert-steppe boundary. Pollen evidence from El-Guettar and Oued el-Akarit indicates Mediterranean-type vegetation associated with Middle Palaeolithic levels. Later, after the onset of the last Würm Glaciation, cooler conditions lowered vegetation belts, expanded grassland, and encouraged dune formation along the coast and in the northern Sahara.
The Sahara was also less arid during the Eemian and Würm periods than it is today. Lakes and swamps formed in depressions, while dry Mediterranean vegetation occupied higher massifs such as the Ahaggar and Tibesti. These water-rich environments could support Middle Palaeolithic groups, although severe aridity beginning around 20,000 years ago made broad areas of the desert and adjacent Sahel less suitable for occupation.
The Maghrib and Sahara are commonly divided into Mousterian and Aterian complexes, although individual sites do not always permit a secure distinction. The Maghrib Mousterian relied on Levallois and disc-core techniques and contained numerous side-scrapers, together with Mousterian points, denticulates, end-scrapers, truncated pieces, naturally backed pieces, and rare burins. The Aterian may derive from the Maghrib Mousterian, but the two complexes may also have overlapped and reflected differences in activities rather than separate populations.